Module 3

1.) How did Western pressures stimulate change in China during the 19thcentury?

China was forced to continue to import opium. China had to cede Hong Kong to Britain and open a number of other ports to European merchants. It had to set import tariffs into China at a low rate of 5 percent. Foreigners were given the right to live in China under their own laws. Foreigners received the right to buy land in China. China was opened to Christian missionaries. Western powers were permitted to patrol some of the interior waterways of China. China lost control of Vietnam, Korea, and Taiwan. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Western nations plus Japan and Russia all had carved out spheres of influence within China, granting them special privileges to establish military bases, extract raw materials, and build railroads.

2.) What strategies did China adopt to confront its various problems? In what ways did these strategies reflect China’s own history and culture as well as the new global order?

The Chinese instituted a "self-strengthening" program in the 1860s and 1870 to support traditional China while also borrowing some new traditions from the West. They sought out qualified candidates for bureaucratic positions by instituting a new examination system. New industrial factories were built and older industries expanded. A telegraph system of communication was initiated. China faced opposition from conservative leaders, they hoped the "self-strengthening" program would allay fears that older systems of power privileges would disappear. They also drew attention to China's dependence on foreign machinery, materials, and manpower. Traditional regional officials, rather than the central government, largely controlled industrial enterprises and used them to strengthen their own position rather than that of the nation as a whole.

3.) In what different ways did the Ottoman state respond to its various problems?

It launched a program of "defensive modernization" that included the establishment of new military and administrative structures alongside traditional institutions as a means of enhancing and centralizing state power. Ambassadors were sent to the courts of Europe to study administrative methods, and European advisers were imported. Technical schools to train future officials were established. The Tanzimat, or reorganization, emerged in the several decades after 1839 as the Ottoman leadership sought to provide the economic, social, and legal underpinnings for a strong and newly recentralized state. Manifestations of this process included the establishment of factories producing cloth, paper, and armaments; modern mining operations; reclamation and resettlement of agricultural land; telegraphs, steamships, railroads, and modern postal service; Western-style law codes and courts; and new elementary and secondary schools. The legal status of the empire's diverse communities was changed in an effort to integrate non-Muslim subjects more effectively into the state. As part of this process, the principle of equality of all citizens before the law was accepted.

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